Citation: de Visser, E.J.; Topoglu, Y.;
Joshi, S.; Krueger, F.; Phillips, E.;
Gratch, J.; Tossell, C.C.; Ayaz, H.
Designing Man’s New Best Friend:
Enhancing Human-Robot Dog
Interaction through Dog-Like
Framing and Appearance. Sensors
2022, 22, 1287. https://doi.org/
10.3390/s22031287
Academic Editors: Abolfazl Zaraki
and Hamed Rahimi Nohooji
Received: 24 November 2021
Accepted: 2 February 2022
Published: 8 February 2022
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Article
Designing Man’s New Best Friend: Enhancing Human-Robot
Dog Interaction through Dog-Like Framing and Appearance
Ewart J. de Visser
1,2,3,
*, Yigit Topoglu
1
, Shawn Joshi
1,
* , Frank Krueger
3
, Elizabeth Phillips
3
,
Jonathan Gratch
4
, Chad C. Tossell
2
and Hasan Ayaz
1,5,6,7,8
1
School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel University,
Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; yt422@drexel.edu (Y.T.); ha45@drexel.edu (H.A.)
2
Warfighter Effectiveness Research Center, United States Air Force Academy, Air Force Academy,
Colorado Springs, CO 80840, USA; chad.tossell@academy.af.edu
3
Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA; fkrueger@gmu.edu (F.K.);
ephill3@gmu.edu (E.P.)
4
Institute of Creative Technologies, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA;
gratch@ict.usc.edu
5
Department of Psychology, College of Arts and Sciences, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
6
Drexel Solutions Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
7
Department of Family and Community Health, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
8
Center for Injury Research and Prevention, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
* Correspondence: edevisse@gmu.edu (E.J.d.V.); sj633@drexel.edu (S.J.); Tel.: +1-910-200-8596 (E.J.d.V.)
Abstract:
To understand how to improve interactions with dog-like robots, we evaluated the im-
portance of “dog-like” framing and physical appearance on interaction, hypothesizing multiple
interactive benefits of each. We assessed whether framing Aibo as a puppy (i.e., in need of devel-
opment) versus simply a robot would result in more positive responses and interactions. We also
predicted that adding fur to Aibo would make it appear more dog-like, likable, and interactive.
Twenty-nine participants engaged with Aibo in a 2
×
2 (framing
×
appearance) design by issuing
commands to the robot. Aibo and participant behaviors were monitored per second, and evaluated
via an analysis of commands issued, an analysis of command blocks (i.e., chains of commands), and
using a T-pattern analysis of participant behavior. Participants were more likely to issue the “Come
Here” command than other types of commands. When framed as a puppy, participants used Aibo’s
dog name more often, praised it more, and exhibited more unique, interactive, and complex behavior
with Aibo. Participants exhibited the most smiling and laughing behaviors with Aibo framed as a
puppy without fur. Across conditions, after interacting with Aibo, participants felt Aibo was more
trustworthy, intelligent, warm, and connected than at their initial meeting. This study shows the
benefits of introducing a socially robotic agent with a particular frame and importance on realism
(i.e., introducing the robot dog as a puppy) for more interactive engagement.
Keywords:
human-animal interaction; human-robot interaction; social robotics; Aibo; robotic
features; behavioral analysis; social bonding; primacy effect; backstories
1. Introduction
1.1. Robot Dogs Designed as Social Actors
Dog-like robots have become more commonplace both in people’s personal lives and
in their workplaces. For example, the social robot Aibo can alleviate loneliness [
1
], serve as
a companion [
2
,
3
], or be used as a tool for group therapy [
4
]. More recently, the Air Force
adopted four-legged, dog-like robots with autonomous capabilities that can assist with
patrolling and guarding remote parts of operational bases, thus freeing up personnel to
focus on other tasks [5].
Dog-like robots are commonly designed and deployed as autonomous social actors
because they are arguably one of the more successful social robot paradigms to date. The
Sensors 2022, 22, 1287. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22031287 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
